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Textual sources of pre-Christian Germanic/Norse pagan religion
by James Mayfield (Chairman, European Heritage Library)

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This is a cursory overview of our main historiographic sources into understanding the rituals, beliefs, literary radiance, and heritage of the pre-Christian Germanic/Norse pagan religion that was practiced across Germany, the Netherlands, Anglo-Saxon England, and Scandinavia prior to Christianization. Popularly called "Norse mythology," this was in fact a highly intricate and developed religion that eventually inspired some of the most sublime works of art, poetry, and prose in the history of European literature in Iceland. Read our article on the possible historical roots of the Norse mythological gods. Also suggested is the excellent The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology, by Arthur Cotterell and Rachel Storm.

Nibelungenlied (click here to read)

The Nibelungenlied is arguably one of the most influential "fable" tales in European literature. Its origins are shrouded in mystery, but it is certain that the legend goes back well before the 6th century CE and was widely embraced by all the Germanic peoples. Although many versions with slight variations exist, the tale generally depicts the ventures of the ancient German warrior Siegfried, who traveled to Iceland to meet Queen Brünhilde and marry Kriemhild, but is falsely accused of being unfaithful to Kriemhild with the Icelandic sovereign. After Siegfried slays a mighty dragon and basks in its blood to attain invulnerability, he fails to realize that a leaf had fallen on his back and was thus Siegfried's Achilles Heel. A jealous Kriemhild placed a cross there and hired an assassin to kill him successfully. Later, Kriemhild is then forced to marry Atli (Attila the Hun) before a great massacre that leaves nearly everyone dead. As a result, the Nibelungenlied is a semi-historical document that must have been finalized after the Goths were decimated by the invading Huns in the 5th century. However, Attila could have been added to this ancient Germanic tribal legend much later. The tale was made famous by the racialist operas of Richard Wagner, where the tale was recreated to include Vikings, Odin, Valkyries, and of course no Attila (arguably because Wagner did not want to depict miscegenation between a German and a Hun). The Nibelungenlied most likely first appeared among the Germans in Germany proper (in Burgundy), whence it proliferated to their relatives in Scandinavia. In Scandinavia, the tale is described in the Edda and Icelandic sagas in a far more mythological and Viking format. As a result, the Nibelungenlied gives us a great look at pre-Christian Germanic customs and religious myths, so long as we meticulously discern between post-Christian adulteration and earlier religious myths.

Tacitus' Germania (click here to read)

This is one of the most significant works of ancient authors exploring other cultures. Similar to Herodotus centuries before him, the Roman Tacitus (2nd century CE) traveled northward to the land of the Germans, in part inspired by a Roman desire to investigate the culture that had become the only power able to obliterate the invading Roman army at its peak (in 9CE, Arminius the Cherusker destroyed three veteran Roman legions and effectively ended any attempt to face the Germans again until Marcus Aurelius centuries later). It is a significantly comprehensive and intellectual work of literature that documents the myths, rituals, religion, gods, lifestyle, housing, relationships, and hierarchy structure of many Germanic tribes across a wide geographic range. It is also surprisingly positive, untainted with the Roman-centric discrimination for a hated "barbarian" enemy that one would expect. In fact, Tacitus seems to admire the Germans' chastity, fidelity to their wives, piety for their religion, and the simplicity of their living in contrast with the famous decadence of the Roman peoples. As a result, this makes Germania one of the most significant sources in ancient Germanic culture and religion. It also came at a time before the Germans had a written language, as the Germanic writing system of Runes has not been proven to have existed yet. His work allows us to determine which Norse gods were worshiped in the 2nd century by the Germans and how they performed sacrifices and votive offerings. Tacitus proves that, overall, the Germanic peoples all adhered to a common cultural and religious tradition whether in Denmark or southern Germany. He does, however, depict many very different tribes who may be not ethnically Germanic. He may have been, in some cases towards the end, referring to the Slavs in the east. However, there is a great similarity in most of the tribes he documents until the last tribes he analyzes on the periphery of the Germanic world, i.e., where the ancient Slavs and Finns lived. Some even claim that he never even traveled to Germany, although this is difficult due to the cultural and religious information that is corroborated with other sources. So too, speaking in absentia about a hated barbarian people who had crushed many Roman legions, Tacitus would not likely have gone out of his way to speak highly of them unless he personally observed qualities that inspired his appreciation.

Jordanes' Origin and Deeds of the Goths (click here to read)

Jordanes was an ethnically Gothic/Germanic scholar living in the 6th century Byzantine Empire after the [Western] Roman Empire had been destroyed by the Ostrogoths in 476. Many Goths had converted to the Arian sect of Christendom by his lifetime, especially thanks to the hegemony of Theodoric the Great of the Gothic Empire and Wulfilas, who created an alphabet that combined Germanic Runes with Greek letters in order to teach the Odinist Goths the Gospel. Jordanes wrote large essays about the origin, traditions, and religio-cultural heritage of the Goths. It is uncertain whether or not he traveled to any Gothic kingdom or to the homeland of the Goths (believed to be Sweden), but being himself a Goth it is probable that he was aware of many Gothic cultural and religious myths from his upbringing. His work Origin and Deeds of the Goths gives us our best picture of the Goths of all his works. However, it addresses history and cultural origins far more than the religion of the Germanic peoples. He has also been criticized for his invented, ahistorical themes, such as his assertion that the ancient Goths interacted with Agamemnon at Troy. Nonetheless, as the Germanic peoples possessed a rather shared religious Pantheon, it is an invaluable source into early Germanic cultural, historical, and religious myth.

Icelandic sagas (recommended reading: The Saga of Icelanders, interpreted by Jane Smiley and Robbert Kellogg)

The Germanic peoples had an interesting process of conversion to Christendom. The Germans of Germany proper, the Low Countries, Burgundy, and Anglo-Saxon England converted by the 7th century (excluding the Saxons). In Scandinavia, however, wars between crusading kings like Olaf Tryggvasson and Odinist warriors obstinently continued until after the 9th century at least. Whereas the old faith was brutally expunged by the continental German Empire of the Franks, the old traditions and Runic writing system survived alongside the new religion for centuries. In Christian Iceland after the late 10th century, brilliant skald poets began to preserve their old pagan myths and cultural tales of their Germanic ancestors by compiling the resplendent Icelandic sagas. These collections of poems, prose, historical chronicles, and religious myths are among the greatest achievements in European literature that were admired by many of the most salient authors on the mainland despite their relatively unknown status today. These are by far our greatest window into pre-Christian Germanic religion. Almost all our understanding of "Norse mythology," the old gods, and the old legitimate historical Viking kings derive largely from these Icelandic monuments. Snorri Sturlusson (see below) compiled the most triumphant works of this period. Whereas the Poetic and Prose Edda offer more religious myth, the other Icelandic sagas are far more historical, tracing the deeds and accomplishments of kings that have been considered historically-verifiable fact. Most of our information on the Viking interlude in the British Isles, the Orkneys, and Ireland come from these sources. So too, they give us the world's first description of the New World, written in the 11th century, by tracing the journeys of Erik the Red (Eirik Raudi) and his son Leif Eriksson (Leifr Eiriksson). As a result, these tales are not only significant historical documents for the history of European civilizations, but also a crucial window inside the ancient religion of all the Germanic peoples. The Icelandic sagas and the history of Iceland also give us a cursory understanding of the priest caste of the old Odinist religion. Iceland was administered in each quandrant by an Odinist shaman (Godi), who during Christianization became advisors to Icelandic Lawgivers in the Althing conferences. Although this caste practice probably was not operative in Scandinavia or Germany, it seems likely that a nascent form thereof dates back long before Iceland was settled by the ancient Germans/Scandinavians.

Elder/Poetic Edda (click here to read)

One of the monoliths of the Icelandic sagas (see above), the ElderEdda/Poetic Edda is a massive collection of myths, poems, tales, and semi-mythological depictions of legitimate historical kings that give us by far our best look at the pagan religion of the Germanic peoples. It is believed to have been compiled after the 9th century but completed in the 11th. The Edda are essentially the "Odinist Bible," and is revered by modern Asatruars (modern Germanic paganists officially recognized as a state church in Iceland) as their foundational holy corpus. "Edda" has been debated to mean "great-grandmother" (in reference to the original mother culture of the Germanic peoples) or "soul" and "reason" [1]. It was believed to be the basis of Snorri Sturlusson's Snorra/Prose Edda (see below), but this has recently been rejected by many scholars [2]. The best manuscript of the Elder Edda was found in 1643, with some poems included dating back to the 8th century. Some may have been written in the British Isles by the Vikings or by Anglo-Saxons who still adhered to the old religion of their heritage. Whereas many other Icelandic sagas are more historical and realistic, the Poetic Edda is almost entirely composed of religious and mythic tales of Odin, Loki, Thor, Baldur, and Tyr. It is this source that gives us our understanding of Ragnarök, the end of the world, in the chapter "Völuspa." The great majority of our understanding of "Norse mythology" and thus the pre-Christian religion of the Germanic peoples derives from the Edda.

Early artwork depicting Odin on his 6-legged horse, Schleipnir

Prose/Snorra Edda (click here to read)

Along with its complimentary Poetic/Elder Edda, the Prose Edda is one of the monoliths of the Icelandic sagas, a work of magnificent literary mastery, and our main historiographic and textual source of ancient Germanic pagan religion. It was composed during the 13th century, primarily by the Icelandic master skald (poet) and Lawspeaker Snorri Sturlusson, who has become a lion in Icelandic history despite the fact that he was assassinated. The Prose/Younger Edda or "Snorra-Edda" was written after the Poetic Edda as a simplified, less poetic prose textbook of the ancient myths and gods of the religion of their German ancestors. It was believed to have been written as an intellectual basis for other skald poets in Iceland. It is more simplified and readable than the poetic rambling and kennings of the Elder Edda that preceded it. It remains one of the invaluable sources of understanding the old gods and beliefs of the early Germans, although it is almost certain that many of the gods were new ad hoc inventions never before heard of by the Germans intended as new characters for these skalds' poetic tales (see our entry for Bragi here as an example).

Heimskringla/Ynglingsaga (click here to read)

Along with the sublime Prose/Snorra Edda (see above), Snorri Sturlusson of the Icelandic poet skald masters also wrote the triumphant Heimskringla, or [Tales of] The Kings of the Homeland (for the Icelanders, Norway). It is a highly academic collection of only partially-mythological historical chronicles of historically-verified Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish kings. It forms the main corpus for historiographic access to early Norwegian and Swedish history. One of the chapters, "Ynglingsaga," traces the history of the foundation of Sweden and its first royal line (the Ynglings), whose progenitors Snorri considers to have been Freyjr and Odin. This may intimate the belief (as postulated in this article) that these may have been legitimate, human kings in ancient Scandinavia. Although it is far less mythological or magical than the other Icelandic sagas, it still affords us an invaluable glimpse at the myths of the ancient Germans and thus their religion.

Adam von Bremen's Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum (click here to read in German, no English exists!?)

As mentioned above, the Germans of Germany proper and the British Isles converted to Christendom far earlier than their relatives in Scandinavia. Germany was ruled by the continental Germanic empire of the Franks under Karl Martel and Karl the Great (Charlemagne) as the vanguard of Latin Christendom, whilst most of their relatives in Scandinavia still worshipped Odin and the old gods using human sacrifice. Bremen in northwestern Germany became one of the earliest German centers of ecclesiastic Christian proselytizing. One of its prominent missionaries and leaders was Adam von Bremen (Adam of Bremen) of the 11th century. He traveled to still-pagan Sweden in order to proliferate the Gospel, where he wrote invaluable ancient chronicles of Sweden and the Germans' pagan religion called Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum (or Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte in his native language). It is one of the least-known but most significant Medieval documents ever found, especially as it functions as one of the earliest documents of missionary activity during the Middle Ages and also has the civilized world's first mention of the Americas (drawing from the discoveries of Vikings who landed in Canada). It is by far the most historical, credible, and thorough source for ancient Germanic religion. Unlike the Roman Tacitus, who ignorantly understood Thor and Tyr to be Mars, Adam's culture may have been more aware of the religion of their ancestors and thus probably produced more believable sources.

Adam von Bremen traveled to the Swedish Odinist temple of Uppsala, an ancient and longstanding center of pilgrimage, mass sacrifice and offerings, and religious worship for the ancient Germans. He depicts in thorough detail the customary and spiritual rituals of these very late Odinists:

"At this point I shall say a few words about the religious beliefs of the Swedes. That nation has a magnificent temple, which is called Upsala, located not far from the city of Sigtuna. In this temple, built entirely of gold, the people worship the statues of three gods. These images are arranged so that Thor, the most powerful, has his throne in the middle of the group of three. On either side of him sit Othin and Freyr. Their provinces are as follows: “Thor,” they say, “rules the heavens; he is the god of thunder, wind and rain, fair weather and the produce of the fields. The second god, Othin, is the god of war, and he provides man with courage in the face of his enemies. The third god is Freyr, who bestows peace and pleasure upon mortals.” Indeed they depict him as having a large phallus. Othin they represent armed just as our people usually portray Mars, and Thor with his scepter seems to be the counterpart of Jupiter. They also worship deified human being upon whom they bestow immortality because of their outstanding deeds.

To all their gods they have assigned priests to offer up the sacrifices of the people. If pestilence and famine threaten, a libation is made to the image of Thor, if war is immanent, one is made to Othin; if a marriage is performed, to Freyr. A general festival for all the provinces of Sweden is customarily held at Upsala every nine years. Participation in this festival is required of everyone. Kings and their subjects, collectively and individually, send their gifts to Upsala; and a thing more cruel than any punishment – those who have already adopted Christianity buy themselves off from these ceremonies. The sacrifice is as follows; of every kind of male creature, nine victims are offered. By the blood of these creatures it is the custom to appease the gods. Their bodies, moreover, are hanged in a grove which is adjacent to the temple. This grove is so sacred to the people that the separate trees in it are believed to be holy because of the death or putrefaction of the sacrificial victims. There even dogs and horses hang beside human beings. (A certain Christian told me that he had seen seventy-two of their bodies hanging up together.) The incantations, however, which are usually sung in the performance of a libation of this kind are numerous and disgraceful, and it is better not to speak of them.

Near that temple is a very large tree with widespread branches which are always green both in winter and summer. What kind of tree it is nobody knows. There is also a spring there where the pagan are accustomed to perform sacrifices and to immerse a human being alive. As long as his body is not found, the request of the people will be fulfilled.

A golden chain encircles that temple and hangs over the gables of the building. Those who approach see its gleam from afar off because the shrine, which is located on a plain, is encircled by mountains so situated as to give the effect of a theatre.

For nine days feasts and sacrifices of this kind are celebrated. Every day they sacrifice one human being in addition to other animals, so that in nine days there are 72 victims which are sacrificed. This sacrifice takes place about the time of the vernal equinox."

In the above description, the reverence of holy trees reflects the tradition of the World Tree (Yggdrasil - "Oog-drah-siyl) as well as the honoring of Odin's self-hanging sacrifice via the lynching of human offerings. He goes on to write "each and every tree is believed divine because of the death and putrefaction of the victims hanging there" [3]. Adam von Bremen remains easily our best source for understanding the ritual, sacrifice, temple hierarchy, and culture of the ancient Germans. The area of the former Uppsala temple is now a set of small rolling hills with absolutely no traces of its former glory as a pilgrimage site.

An artistic depiction of the Uppsala temple sacrifice depicted by Adam von Bremen. (Click to enlarge)

Believed to be the mounds on which the now-demolished Odinic temples lay.

Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum (click here to read)

Saxo Grammaticus was one of the greatest Scandinavian historians and literary minds. Writing in the 13th century Denmark long after the Danes had been Christianized, Saxo Grammaticus (his real name is disputed) published a variety of prodigious works on Danish and Viking history, including their cultural traditions and early religious beliefs. The late date of this publication means that historians and literary writers of his era were far more scholastic, scientific, and credible than the half-mythic "historical" chronicles of the Icelandic sagas and earlier sources. However, this also means that Saxo's writings focus far more on history than on early Germanic pagan religion. Saxo's supreme work was Gesta Danorum, a compendium of ancient Germanic and Viking history stretching back to its origins. In this collection, the first several books entirely revolve around the myths and Odinist religion of their early Germanic ancestors. The remaining books focus on Viking history and the obstreperous wars with the Slavic tribes and polities to the east. As a result, Saxo gives historians some of our earliest depictions of the ancient Slavs and their interaction with the Vikings alongside Ahmad ibn Fadlan.

________________________________________

ABOUT THE AUTHOR:

James Mayfield is a historian and the Chairman of the European Heritage Library. I have a Cum Laude BA in History with a Minor in Germanic Studies (language and history), am presently working for my Masters in History, and plan to immediately progress to my PhD Doctorate. I have a special academic interest in Europe's diverse ethnic identities, languages, and cultures, and the political struggles of native European and immigrant minority identities. See my staff entry for more information.

BIBLIOGRAPHY/SOURCES USED:

Smiley, Jane, and Robert Kellogg. The Sagas of Icelanders. New York: Viking Penguin, 2001.

Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte, or Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum of Adam von Bremen.

Sacred-Texts.com for the links displayed above.

Cotterell, Arthur, and Rachel Storm. The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology. London: Hermes House, 2005.

[1] The Poetic Edda. Translated by Lee M. Hollander. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1962. Page xiii.

[2] Derry, T. K. History of Scandinavia. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1979. Page 27.

[3] Derry, T. K. History of Scandinavia. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1979. Page 28.