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• Ethnic/religious groups of Habsburg Empire
• Historical breakup of Yugoslavia ('91-'09)
• Muslim populations in European countries
• History of Christianization of Europe
• Soviet Union, Communist influence
• Map of European ethnic groups
• Map of Fascism in Europe (1922-75)
• History of Islamic conquest in Europe
• Religions & ethnic groups in Russia
• Detailed map of French colonization
• Detailed map of British colonization
• Napoleon's conquests & legacy
• Ethnic & religious map of pre-Nazi Poland

--MORE & NON-ENGLISH--

• Pecs, Hungary: collision point between
Muslim and Christian empires
• Auschwitz and Birkenau
• Poland's resistance to Nazis in pictures
• Muhammad cartoon crisis in pictures
• Stalin's private summer home
• Ravenna: capital of Gothic empire
• Czar Nicholas II's Ukrainian palace
• European traditional cultural costumes
• Inside the Vatican, house of all wealth
• Banknotes/currencies of Europe
• Croatia's Dubrovnik, untarnished gem

--MORE & NON-ENGLISH--

• Islamic Mujahidin vs. Christian Spain
• Poland-Lithuania vs. Teutonic Order
• Nevskiy's Russia vs. German Crusaders
• Prussia vs. France (Nazi Propaganda)
• Libya: Europe will soon be Islamic
• Ivan the Terrible vs. Muslim Tatars
• Soviet Propaganda: Defeat of Germany  

--MORE & NON-ENGLISH--

• An analysis of Mussolini's 1938 racialist legislation
• The disastrous effects of Soviet collectivization on Kazakhstan
• Changing meaning of Italian identity under Fascist rule
• Yugoslavia's independent break from East and West
• The Galicians: the Celts of Spain
• The modern Macedonian Slavs and Alexander the Great
• An argument for the Romanians' links to ancient Dacians
• Mussolini's Italian death camp for Jews, Slovenes, and Marxists
• The disappeared Jews of Hungary and the Arrow Cross regime
• The Gypsies in history and today, Europe's public enemy
• History of Jihad in Chechnya vs. Russians
• History of the Muslim Tatars in Eastern Europe
• Post-WWII expulsion of 10 million ethnic German civilians
• Ethnic & religious history of Serbs, Croats, & Bosnians
• Breakaway states and independence movements in Europe
• The ancient Germanic Runic alphabet and Runestones
• Teutonic Order and their 800-year legacy in Eastern Europe
• 460-year struggle for Albanian homeland, and 540 for Kosovo
• 2,800-year-old white mummies of China, bringers of Buddhism?
• Alexander the Great's Greek descendents in Pakistan?
• Visual History of Yugoslavia and its breakup (1918-2008)

--MORE & NON-ENGLISH--

Gallery: Muslim Mosques of European countries + historical background
by James Mayfield (Chairman, European Heritage Library)

Print this Article    •    About the Author    •    Bibliography/Sources

Mosques of the Islamic religion (almost exclusively Sunni or Sufi) have existed in Europe for over a thousand years, starting with the invading Muslim conquests of Christian Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia (Spain and Portugal) in the 8th century. After most of them were destroyed with the unification of Spain to expel the Muslim occupants that settled from North Africa and the Fertile Crescent, the nearly invincible Ottoman Turks delivered the blade of Islam into southeastern Europe, conquering what evolved out of their yoke to become Bosnia, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania, southern Ukraine, Moldova, Greece, Serbia, and almost Croatia and Hungary for nearly 500 years. See our exclusve History of Islamic Conquest in Europe Map. This led to the construction of many mosques in Europe, chiefly by the occupying Muslims but in less frequent cases by natives generally forced or relegated to convert to Islam in Albania and Bosnia due to high taxation, a compulsory conscription of of children from each family (devshirme), or sincere adherence to the religion. The greatest concentration of mosques in Europe, however, are recent constructions following World War II with the advent of liberalism and open-border immigration, an attempt by Muslim immigrants to protect the identity and social concerns. As the two cultures collide, the construction of new mosques in Europe compliments the tide of immigration to Europe that further irritates what many Europeans increasingly identify as cultural incompatibility that is a growing problem in Europe. For some, new mosques means a victory for Islam against Europe. For others, new mosques means that these new immigrants refuse to assimilate to benefit European societies. Many are saddened to hear the Muslim call to prayer (Adhan) replace 1,000-year-old church bells in cities like Rotterdam. Europe's immigration issue is unique in that European societies are criticized by many for refusing to assimilate and tolerate incoming Muslim minorities, which some argue may contribute to their resorting to terrorism as a way to liberation. Regardless of the cultural sensitivites and undeniable antipathy that most European societies have for the growing Muslim minority, mosques and their daily inhabitants exude a tremendously sincere and pious religiosity that is at interesting contrast to the decline of religion in America and Europe.

Click here to see our detailed Muslim Populations in Europe Map. See our unique EU Country Profiles and Immigration for statistics and information on the Muslim populations in European nations. If you have any images you want to add, or have any information or questions, notify us. Not all countries have been shown below either because no images could be found or because Islam is so insignificant there that it would not matter (such as Belarus or Poland).

QUICK VIEW:

England • France •  Switzerland • Germany • Austria • Spain •  Italy • Netherlands • Croatia • Albania • Kosovo • Serbia • Bosnia • Macedonia • Montenegro • Cyprus • Romania • Greece • Bulgaria • Denmark • Ireland • Norway • Sweden • Finland • Russia • Ukraine • Hungary

Mosques of England:

Due to the fact that the UK has been free of Islamic conquest for its entire history, all mosques in the country are the result of modern post-liberalization immigration in the last several decades after World War II. England has among the highest Muslim populations in Europe, with the main ethnic groups being Pakistanis, Arabs, Nigerians (most of whom not Muslim), and Arab. The overwhemling majority live in London and large cities, along with nearly all mosques.

Mosques of France:

France has liberalized its culture only recently, though it has historically had an increasing tide of immigration from its Muslim-dominated colonies like Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, etc. France has the largest population of Muslims in Europe, though there are nations with higher percentages in proportion to the total population in the Balkans as a result of the Islamic assaults by the Turks for 400 years. The majority of French Muslims are Berber and African blacks, and the overwhelming majority live in Paris and large cities.

Mosques of Switzerland:

Mosques in Switzerland are the result of immigration from France, the Middle East, and also a large emigrating population from the Balkans due to the tumult of the Yugoslav wars (Bosnians, Albanians). The majority of mosques and Muslims live in large cities, especially in the French minority ethnic portion of Switzerland.

Mosques of Germany:

Mosques in Germany are a very new phenomenon. They are the result of recent post-World War II immigration that was opened in order to revitalize the shattered economy. The main group are the Turks, but Germany has large populations of Iranians, Afghans, and others from the Middle East. Though Nazism has of course been removed in Germany by and large, the presence of foreigners and Muslims in Germany is a major problem for much of the population, including among non-Nazi moderates. It is worth noting that the Turkish immigrants in Europe have a much lower unemployment and have higher income and education than other immigrants from other Muslim countries, thus making Germany's and Austria's Muslims less objectionable to the locals than the North and Sub-Saharan Africans in France, for example. Despite many Turks' legitimate effort to strive for success in Germany, a great portion of Germans and other cultures view them with an exaggerated characteristic of "leeching" off native taxpayer expenses. Many depict the first-generation ancestors as legitimate workers, but their children as apathetic and careless. There is, overall, very little cross-cultural assimilation in Europe in comparison with the United States' immigrants due to the strong presence of ethnic and cultural identities on both sides.

Mosques of Austria:

Islam is not new to Austria. Austria was often on the brink of collapse as the encroaching Muslim conquerers of the Ottoman empire yearned to deliver the blade of Islam into Vienna. Sulayman the Magnificent nearly conquerered all of Southeast Europe. Each attempt at conquerering the Germans in Austria failed, although the Turks conquered the neighboring Hungarians and Balkan Slavs. Austria ultimately returned to annex most of them (especially Hungary) with much approval of the non-German kingdoms due to their desire to remain free from Ottoman conquest. The Austrian Habsburg Empire treated the Muslim minority, like all religious minorities, as second-class citizens. The Bosniaks of Bosnia, conquered from the Ottomans by 1908, were the only Muslim minority in the German empire. The empire lost this province after World War I as Austria-Hungary dissolved, so Austria's direct experience with a Muslim minority is very recent, a result of immigration from North Africa, Arabia, Pakistan, and the Middle East, as well as Bosnia and Albania. Most of Austria is free of Muslims, but the capital Vienna often seems to have more Muslims than natives. There is almost no assimilation, and a great deal of growing antipathy between the two cultures. The Turkish population is quite large, and many native Germans criticize that the first-generation immigrants legitimately sought work, but their children simply do nothing at taxpayer expense. This is, of course, oversimplified. It is nonetheless ironic that the Germans of the Austrian Empire effectively saved much of Eastern Europe and especially the Hungarians from four centuries of Muslim conquest, and now its capital has more Muslims than natives at first glance.

Mosques of Spain:

Mosques and Islam have been in Spain on and off for over 1,100 years. As a result of the Islam ic conquest of Iberia in the 8th century, mosques appeared all over the country where Arabs ("Moors") exerted authority. The initial conquest was highly intolerant and completely unprovoked, leaving churches and cities in complete desolation. A breakaway emirate, al-Andalus, created a unique system of preference for money over religious piety that allowed the religions to enjoy limited superficial equality that was unusual in Middle Eastern history. A succeeding dynasty of Muslim conquerers from Morocco, the Almohads, exploited the power vacuum resulting from al-Andalus' collapse to re-establish hard-line Islamist piety that barred all religions except Islam. Their capital was Seville. From the 13th century onward, the unification of Spain and the Reconquista expelled all Muslims and Jews from Spain, and destroyed most mosques in the country except only those most beautiful. The Alhambra survived as a former mosque, though of course it became a museum. The former mosques and palaces of Granada, Cordoba, and Seville are among the most beautiful works of architecture in existence, although it is interesting that the great majority of artistic works in many of these "Muslim" buildings were actually built by the native Christian Spaniards after the Arabs were expelled. Seville's Alcazar, for example, was mostly built to its present glory by Spaniards. Most mosques and Muslims in Spain today are a result of immigration from adjacent North Africa. North Africa being Arab and Berber, most Muslims in Spain today are of Arab and Berber extraction and very rarely outside of the southern province of Andalusia. Despite enduring antipathy towards Muslims, southern Spain's architecture blatantly uses a blend of Arab and Spanish architecture that is rather ironic. Spanish intrusion into Morocco in the colonial period, and still today in Ceuta, Morocco, leads to immigration to the wealthier Spain.

Mosques of Italy:

Italy's quality as a major maritime trading country of coastal nations and principalities means that Arab and Iranian traders have been present in what is now Italy for centuries, though only rarely settling. There have been Albanian immigrants in Italy for centuries, but originally it was to escape the Islamic conquest and forced or pressured Islamization of the Albanians by the Ottoman Turks and the Bektashi Sufis. There remain large Albanian populations in eastern Italy today, who are largely Muslims. Most of the Islamic population in Italy is due to post-WWII liberalization and immigration from Arab North Africa, Libya, the Middle East, but primarily from the black regions of Africa. Naples is often reviled by many Italians as a "black city" that has lost its Italian character. It must be acknowledged that very few Sub-Saharan black Africans, by proportion, are Muslim.

Mosques of the Netherlands:

As Europe's most liberal state, and a former major colonial power, the Netherlands has a huge population of Muslims, especially from Morocco and Arab North Africa, from Somalia, and from Indonesia. This amalgam has caused a great social rift, and dormant antipathy between the two groups exacerbates the conflict because Muslims become more strongly bind to more conservative Islam than in other immigrant nations (like the United States) as a vehicle for collective struggle, justice, etc. Nearly all of the mosques are brand new, dating from the 20th century and especially after World War II due to immigration. The largest mosque in Europe (outside Russia) is being planned at Rotterdam. Rotterdam has been portrayed as majority Muslim. There is, overall, very little cross-cultural assimilation between immigrants and natives in Europe, and this tension is blatant in many arguments by socialites and politicians like Geert Wilders and Theo van Gogh, the latter being assassinated for his anti-Muslim criticism.

Mosques of Croatia:

Almost free of mosques, having been spared the Islamic conquest and jihad of the Ottomans for the most part by merging with the Austrian Empire, Croatia has a few mosques that are a result of the Bosniak and Albanian populations. The fact that Croatia s still a very poor country outside of famous coastal resorts like Dubrovnik means that Croatia does not have a large, permanent Muslim immigrant population, and is merely a waypoint for immigration to wealthier Italy, Austria, and Germany.

Mosques of Albania:

As Europe's only Muslim-majority nation, the Albanians have a long history of Islam. Islam came to Albania via the jihad of the Turks, who ruled what is now Albania for 400 years. 70% of Albanians today are Muslim, though a very secular form thereof (see my Inside Albania article). Because of the communist domination and "atheization" of Albania under dictator Enver Hoxha, few all mosques were destroyed. Today, Islam is making a resurgence, including from Arab immigrants from Saudi Arabia seeking to revitalize Islam in Europe. Kosovo is also majority Muslim, a much more conservative population because of their polarity to the Serbian Christian populations as well as the freedom from communism in the region.

Skanderbeg, Albania's national hero and defender of Albanians against the Islamic conquest, next to a mosque

Mosques of Kosovo:

Kosovo was part of Serbian national heritage for nearly 1,000 years, even when it was ruled by the Muslim Turks for some 300 years. During the Muslim occupation, the Albanians in Albania converted to Islam partially by force and largely by relegation to survive their poor social status and economic hardships exacerbated by blood taxes the poor Albanian farmers could not afford. Many Albanians converted to Islam as a practical means of alleviating their second-class status, and this social move did aggregate unusual social status to the Albanians under the Ottoman authorities until the ultraconservative period of the late 19th century. Serbs, with a vivid Christian heritage already established, refused to accept Islam, and almost no Serbs today adhere to the Sunnah (laws of Islam). Albanians, given preferential status because of their submission, populated Kosovo (Serbia), where they soon became the majority, thus making Kosovo then and now a majority Muslim and Albanian land. Kosovo, not suffering from Communism like Albania, is in many ways more religiously conservative. Much of the bloody revolt against Yugoslavia was under the banner of Islam, where terrorism was often attached with jihad when Albanians searched for justification for their struggle. With the Clinton bombings in 1999, Kosovo was taken from Yugoslavia and has since been occupied and protected by US forces alongside the UN and NATO. In 2008, when Kosovo was given freedom without any approval of the Serbian nation of which it was an important part for almost 1,000 years (see our History of Kosovo), Islam is still an important part of Kosovar and Albanian tradition despite the fact that their main national hero, the Christian Skanderbeg, spent his life rallying Albanians against the Islamic jihad of the Turks. Read our article on the Albanian national struggle to see their perspective on this conflict. When Albanians declared independence in Kosovo, standing behind the president in the national speech of freedom was a mullah. With Kosovo now a proud and independent nation (although not recognized by the great majority of the world), Islam will likely make a comeback with more mosques being design since Serbs cannot intervene as before. It must be acknowledged that Albanians, even in Kosovo, are very liberal. It is rumored that some mosques in Kosovo are named after Usama bin Laden, although it is difficult to determine whether this is polemical or not.

Mosques of Bosnia:

Bosnia, which is 40% Muslim, has a great deal of mosques, most of which being centuries old as a result of the jihad of the Ottoman Turks into the region, who ruled Bosnia-Herzegovina for nearly 400 years. As a result of the Ottoman Muslim invasion and the difficult tumult and division caused by the Yugoslav Wars, Bosnia is today broken in three: Republika Srpska in the east for Serbian Christians, with a Croatian enclave in the southwest, whilst the center is divided between Bosnian Christians and Bosniak Muslims. Bosniaks are generally rather liberal, since they adopted Islam during Ottoman rule primarily to alleviate their second-class status. After Bosnia was re-established in 1995, Islam is making a resurgence, as many consider it to be a pure corpus of justice and law that will reverse the rampant thievery and kleptocracy of one of Europe's most impoverished nations. Wahhabi clerics and investors from Saudi Arabia are making a great effort to spread ultraconservative Islam in Bosnia, including by paying white women to wear Saudi-style coverings and giving them Arabic-language music (see the book The Coming Balkan Caliphate). Many polemics fear that Bosnia is Europe's gateway to terrorism, although this may be oversimplified. Nonetheless, Bosnia was and is a training camp for many foreign Muslims training for Shahid (suicide/martyrdom) in Chechnya, Afghanistan, and also in the terrorist attacks in Kosovo against the Serbs.

by Alan Grant

A mosque destroyed during the Yugoslav wars by Serbs, Bosnian Christians, or Croats.

Mosques of Serbia:

Serbia's Muslim population -- and their mosques -- is due to the presence of Albanian Kosovars and Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), having converted to Islam as a result of 400 years of Islamic conquest and jihad of the Ottomans. Though there are mosques in Belgrade, most mosques are only in the south, where Albanians are the majority. Most Muslim Bosniaks fled west away from Serbia because of persecution. Mosques and Muslims in Serbia face routine harassment because of their association with "traitor" Bosniaks, and especially the very-hated Albanians to the south. Serbia arguably offered the most impressive resistance to the Islamic conquest, despite its eventual annexation by Istanbul, further imbuing Muslims in Serbia with an image of treason to their country (whether or not it is appropriate). What was perceived as theft of their land (Kosovo) by the United States and the United Nations in 2008 exacerbated this conflict.

A mosque in Serbia destroyed by Serbs in the Yugoslav wars

One of the oldest mosques in Europe, built during the Islamic occupation (by Ottoman Turks)

Mosques of Montenegro:

Because of the precarious division of the former Yugoslavia, large swaths of Bosnian, Montenegrin, and Macedonian lands overlap populations other than the dominant nationality. In Macedonia and Montenegro, there are large Albanian Muslim populations. In the eyes of more nationalistic Albanians, Montenegro can be described as occupying a large part of "Greater Albania." Most mosques were destroyed during the union with Serbia. Despite the large Albanian population, there are few mosques.

Mosques of Cyprus:

Cyprus today is split in half, with Muslim Turks occupying the north and Greeks occupying the south. After the 1974 invasion by Turkey, the nation has two governments, though the northern Turkish Cypriot Republic is not recognized. Muslims have lived in Cyprus for over 1,000 years due to its proximity to the Middle East. It was a major rallying point for Crusaders until it fell to the Turks by the 16th century. Most of the mosques remain in the north with the Turkish Muslims, both old and new.

Mosques of Macedonia:

Macedonia's proximity to Turkey and Albania means that some 33% of Macedonia is Albanian, thus ~33% Muslim. It must be noted that Albanian Islam is very liberal. Islam is making a renaissance among Albanians after freedom from communism came with the death of Enver Hoxha. Many view Islam as an inviolable and trustworthy source of justice and law that contrasts the thievery and corruption of modern Balkan states. Albanian Muslims in Serbia, Macedonia, and Greece are a major source of social conflict between Albanians and the Slavic population. Most Macedonians view Albanians as bringers of drugs, crime, prostitution, and an exorbitant birthrate that will consign the native Macedonian Slavs to oblivion. The civil war and violence created by the Albanian Kosovar rebels in 2001 greatly created a hatred between the two ethnic groups in the area.

Mosques of Romania & Moldova:

Islam in Romania is not new. Before Romania was united after declaring independence from the Ottoman empire, the Turkish Muslims ruled the two Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldova. Muslim domination was experienced in Romania for nearly 400 years, leading to forced and relegated conversion to avoid living as second-class citizens with exorbitant taxes. Many beautiful mosques are all over Romania that are centuries old. The first few photos below (with the EHL watermark) are from my vacation to Constanta, Romania (see my Romania article). A glorious mosque in Constanta is one of the few mosques in the world that allows infidels (non-Muslims), and one of the only mosques that allows one to enter the minaret at the top to view the entire city. Muslims, most of whom fled Romania to Turkey after unification led to persecution, still settle on the eastern coast. It is odd that in Romania's hideously-poor city of Constanta, where few Muslims even live, there is one of the more beautiful mosques of the world because of Turkish private funding.

Mosques of Greece:

Islam has been present in what is now Greece for nearly 500 years, when the Muslim Ottoman empire obliterated the Byzantine empire and the regional Greek city-states, and converted its holiest sites like the Hagia Sophia into mosques. Constantinople, formerly Greek land, became Islamicized as Istanbul. The Greeks united to create the first Greece in history in the 19th century. Today, Greece has much Muslim immigration from Turkey, the Middle East, North Africa, and especially the problematic Albanian Muslim population. Most of the old churches in former Greek territories like in Anatolia were either demolished or converted to mosques. When nearly all Greeks were expelled from Turkey after the Greco-Turkish War (and all Turks were expelled to Greece), more churches were destroyed along with them. So too, many mosques in Greece were converted to churches to celebrate the formation of the first Greek nation. A lot of mosques in both Greece and Turkey have a typical Orthodox look to them, which causes many Europeans to ridiculously exaggerate that Turks merely "copied" the architecture of European civilizations.

Photograph inside an allegedly radical and illegal mosque in Greece.

Mosques of Bulgaria:

Like all the Balkans, Islam came to Bulgaria via the Islamic conquests of the mighty Ottoman empire. Bulgaria has more Turks than any country in Europe except Germany, making ~10% of Bulgaria Muslim today. Bulgaria also has a large population of native white Muslims, called Pomaks, who adhere to Bulgarian culture and language but follow the Qur'an and worship one God instead of three. Many Turks were expelled after the unification of Bulgaria in the 20th century, and a process of "de-Islamization" occurred in this ancient Slavic Orthodox Christian nation. Most were persecuted in the nationalist hysteria of 19th and 20th century Bulgaria, when the far-right of Axis Bulgaria viewed the nation only appropriate for Slavic Orthodox Bulgarians. Today, Bulgaria still has some Turkish immigration. Most of the mosques are from the period of Islamic rule.

Mosques of Denmark:

Islam in Scandinavia is a major problem, leading to serious conflicts in the native societies. Although Sweden is more culturally liberal, many Danes consider their country "overrun." Most Muslims in Denmark come from Africa, both the Arabs of the north and the blacks to the south. The Muslim population considers itself marginalized, and the natives criticize them for their low literacy, high proportion of welfare reciept, lack of employment, and refusal to integrate. The crisis of the Muhammad cartoons reveal a clash between the native culture and the immigrating ones. Denmark has recently worked to stop or reduce Muslim immigration, the construction of mosques, and the open benefits immigrants enjoy. There are few mosques overall in Denmark, largely because of an increasingly-disgruntled Danish government and society. Because so many of the Muslim immigrants in Denmark are from Somalia and Sub-Saharan Africa, they lack the money or ability to have mosques built. Most "mosques" end up being in small shops or warehouses like that shown below. The largest mosque in Europe is also being planned in Copenhagen (Koebenhavn), though it has yet to materialize due to the agitation of the natives and the lack of funds of the immigrants.

Mosques of Ireland:

Despite its geographic and political proximity to immigrant-rich England, Ireland is one of the most homogeneous countries of Europe. Its mosques and Muslim populations are all the result of post-war immigration. Ireland, now one of the wealthiest and most prosperous nations of the world, is recently getting more immigration that presages great social conflict. Many Irishmen are greatly incensed at the perceived limitless social welfare benefits that white immigrants from Latvia and Poland get already. There is much fear in this conservative, homogeneous country that immigrants of an incredibly polar cultural world with very low literacy and education will further compound this social crisis.

Mosques of Norway:

In one of the most homogeneous countries in the world, Norway has almost no Muslims and no mosques outside of Oslo. The reason for such a small immigrant population in Norway is primarily because of the inability for immigrants to feel welcome in such a polar society, and also because most Muslims can simply immigrate to the east to be among a more liberal society already full of Muslims: Sweden. Norway is also not a member of the European Union as of 2009, making it less open to immigrants. Many Norwegians find this closure to open-border immigration as one of the great reasons for not joining the EU.

Mosques of Sweden:

With France, USA, Canada, and the Netherlands, Sweden is one of the most liberal societies in the world in terms of cross-cultural immigration and assimilation. It has one of Europe's largest Muslim populations, leading to many conflicts with the natives who are tired of an open society and free economy that they believe Muslims exploit. Most of Sweden's Muslims are from the Middle East and Africa, though it is a haven for Afghans, Somalis, and those liberal Iranians fleeing the Islamic piety of post-revolutionary Iran. Sweden often underreports their Muslim populations, officially reporting anywhere from 2% Muslim to 5%, whilst it is in fact much more. All of the Muslim populations here are, of course, post-WWII results of liberalization. Many Muslims in Europe go to Sweden to avoid the strong cultural resentment and persecution they often meet in places like Germany or other parts of Europe. Much violence occurs between the various ethnic groups in Sweden, which is a major problem, as European natives depict a one-sided view of Muslims and immigrants attacking and raping white women, and the other side portrays the equally one-sided view of intolerant and hateful Swedes who refuse to grant justice to the immigrant community. There is much social conflict ahead for Sweden; the liberality of the Swedish government and its law does not reflect on Swedish society.

Mosques of Finland:

As the most homogeneous nation in Europe (with Iceland), like Norway, Finland has almost no mosques outside of the capital (Helsinki). Finland has been criticized by the US and EU for not taking in "enough" immigrants. Like Norway, Muslims can much more easily immigrate to Sweden to the west to enjoy a more liberal and Muslim-populated society.

Mosques of Russia:

Islam has been in Russia for centuries as a result not of immigration, but of Russian conquest of millions of Muslims in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Tatarstan. The largest empire on earth conquered Kazan, Astrakhan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Chechnya, Dagestan, and other Muslim countries for centuries of rule. The Muslims of Russia are largely not a part of Russian society, but rather are secluded to Muslim areas in what Russia (but not they) considers the territory of the Russian Federation. The jihad of the Chechnyans (read my article on the history of Chechnya) has been particularly angering to Russian Christians, leaving hundreds dead on both sides anywhere from the battlefields of Grozniy (the capital) to Moscow theatres and hospitals. Islam is the largest-growing religion in Russia and Europe. Click the link to learn about the History of the Tatar Muslims in Russia. Almost no mosques exist outside of the Muslim south or the major province of Tatarstan/Kazan by proportion. View our exclusive Ethnic & Religious Map of Russia.

(from dawaatelislam.com)

Mosques of Ukraine:

The regions of today's Ukraine -- especially the Crimea -- have been populated by Islamic states for centuries, primarily Turkic Tatar people (see my article on the History of the Tatars in Russia/Ukraine). With the Russian conquest of the Tatar Muslim states and the Ottoman empire along the Black Sea, the Tatar Muslims were gradually exterminated or marginalized, especially under Stalin when they were expelled en masse to Kazakhstan due to their support for the invading Germans. Today, Tatars are making a return to their faith, though their tiny population is insignificant. Ukraine sees little immigration because its society is less liberal and its economy less successful, and also because Ukraine as an incredibly homogeneous nation is very unappealing to foreigners seeking a place to live happily and quietly.

NOT a mosque. This is the rear entrance of a Ukrainian palace built by a major Russian general who helped conquer Muslim Central Asia.

from serg-klymenko.narod.ru

Mosques of Hungary:

Islam has been present on the borders of Hungary since the Islamic jihad of the Ottomans from the 15th-17th centuries that literally brought this massive ancient kingdom to the brink of total collapse. Its last king, Lajos, was slain in battle, leaving Hungary willing and desperate to accept annexation to the German empire (Habsburg Austria) as a way to escape Islamic conquest and persecution. Much of Hungary was annexed by the Turks, centered at the lovely small town of Pecs. Churches were converted to mosques, as seen below, that were re-converted to Catholic churches when Hungary was liberated. Pecs tourist pamphlets appeal to tourists from America and other liberal societies by describing the city as an example of multi-cultural, multi-religious co-existence. This ironically dismisses the fact that Pecs was the center of a bitter inter-ethnic, inter-cultural war between the peoples of Europe and the invading Turks for centuries. Hungary today has almost no Muslims due to the German Catholic annexation from 1526-1918, and because immigrants can simply avoid this largely closed, homogenous, and poor country for wealthier Austria nearby.

A former mosque during the Islamic conquest that was converted into a Catholic church thereafter.

________________________________________

ABOUT THE AUTHOR:

James Mayfield is a historian and the Chairman of the European Heritage Library. I have a Cum Laude BA in History with a Minor in Germanic Studies (language and history), am presently working for my Masters in History, and plan to immediately progress to my PhD Doctorate. I have a special academic interest in Europe's diverse ethnic identities, languages, and cultures, and the political struggles of native European and immigrant minority identities. See my staff entry for more information.

BIBLIOGRAPHY/SOURCES USED:

If you know the original owner of one of these images, feel free to tell us, and we will add a citation reference. It is difficult to pinpoint the original origin of images that are so widely reused. If any of the works you have found are originally yours and are protected, please tell me and I will remove them if necessary.