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The ancient Germanic Runic alphabet and Runestones
by James Mayfield (Chairman, European Heritage Library)

Print this Article    •    About the Author    •    Bibliography/Sources

This article is about the ancient Germanic Runic alphabet and the many historic Runestone artifacts throughout Scandinavia, the British Isles, and Europe. It also investigates whether the Germanic writing system was derived from Roman Latin or was entirely independent. If you would like to add theories and content to this article, or an error has been made, please notify us. If you would like me to teach you Runic, let me know.

As this article is very long and comprehensive, you may prefer the QUICK VIEW below:

Ethnographic & religious background •  Runic alphabet & meanings • Possible origins • Runestones of the world • Runic alphabet/Runes today

One of the more unique and historically-influential systems of writing in European history is the Runic alphabet of the ancient Germanic cultures. It is unusual among other ancient European scripts in that most of our evidence of Runic writing comes from thousands of stone inscriptions, and the individual characters themselves have important pre-Christian Nordic religious significance. Because much of this early Germanic “heathen” culture was destroyed with the 7th-10th century propagation of Christendom, our evidence and clarity on the origins of the Runic alphabet is shrouded in mystery.

Ethnographic and religious background on the Germanic peoples:

The Germanic peoples share a common genetic, ethnocultural, historic, and linguistic heritage, and include the English, Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, Germans/Austrians themselves, the Dutch, Flemings, Frisians, Icelanders, Faroese, and Volga Germans, and may include other groups like the ancient Finnic, Celtic, and Baltic peoples according to disputed theories. Before the formation of independent national and political identities that caused divergence in each region's cultural traditions, the Germanic peoples followed a common religion, language, and culture. The pre-Christian pan-Germanic religion, today abstractly called Asatru or “Norse religion,” united the Germans under a pantheon that included the god of lightning Thor, the god of war Tyr, the high god of wisdom and death Odin/Woden/Wotan, and the god of purity Baldur. Read our article on the possible historic roots of Germanic gods for more information. Because the Germanic peoples lacked a written history until the first centuries AD, it is difficult to determine how, where, and when this religion became formalized. In the early centuries AD, Germanic peoples gradually coalesced into formal states or tribal confederations, creating powerful empires in Spain, Tunisia (Carthage), France, England, and Italy. From the 6th century until the 11th, the Germans had conquered the eastern British Isles, subjugating the native populations to eventually create the English/Germanic-speaking and Runic-writing English kingdom. By the 10th century, early foundations of the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish nations had been forged, firstly as pre-Christian Odinists before the spread of Christianity became compulsory by the 12th century. Although the Runic alphabet was used for centuries after Christianity (especially in Sweden), it was replaced by the Latin alphabet as the lingua franca by the 11th century on the entire continent. It survived along with Odinic religion in the isolated princedoms of Iceland until the 16th century, and Skaldic poets immortalized and codified their pre-Christian heritage and myths in the Nordic Eðða from the 13th-15th centuries. Snorri Sturlusson (1178-1241), Iceland's greatest documenter on the Germans' pre-Christian religion, offers us our main source on this obscure ethnocultural history. To read an introduction to the Edda, read our article on Sources on pre-Christian Germanic/Norse religion. Tracing the religious history of the Germanic peoples allows us to follow the evolution of the Runic alphabet, since Runes had religious symbolism.

An EHL map of Europe's ethnic groups and their relations. The Germanic groups of a common descent are in orange. (CLICK TO ENLARGE)

The Stavkirke (Stave-Church) is the equivalent of an Odinic church. They are national monuments that can be seen all throughout Scandinavia. Primitive churches have been found in Russia, Ukraine, and Germany. Most German ones were probably destroyed by Christians since Germany quickly became the superpower of the Christian world by the 11th century.

The Runic alphabet, the Runes' meanings, and spiritual significance (divination):

The Runic alphabet was used as a formal system of writing in England, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, and the Baltic. It was previously used to write many defunct languages such as Gothic (even after Christianization). It is an incredibly practical script that can be easily used and learned by laymen to write the many sounds of the German language (necessary since early English was virtually identical). There are several forms of Runic with minute variations for each Germanic region. Runic seems to have been formally developed enough such that both a formal and short-hand form were devised, implying a functional level of academic literacy in this “barbarian” world. The Runic alphabet is often called “Fuþark” (pronounced FOO-Tark) because of the Runes that are usually treated as the first letters of the alphabet (F, U, Th, A, R, K). The so-called “Elder Fuþark” that was more prevalent in Scandinavia seems to have been used by the educated and in earlier times, whilst “Younger Fuþark” became popularized later during the Viking period. Nearly all of the regional variants of Runic are nearly mutually intelligible, intimating a high level of shared development of the script across the Germanic world.

Elder Futhark was the early form that seems to have spread from Sweden since the much later forms of Swedish Runes are still similar to the Elder form.

A chart of the typical changes in the later Younger Futhark's Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian variants. Because Swedish variants remained most close to the original Elder Futhark, this reinforces the probability that the origin of Runes was in Sweden.

In some cases, the individual Runes themselves were attributed with religious significance or representation. This springs from the fact that the Runes were believed to have been designed by the “High One” Odin himself with spiritual meaning. Unfortunately, with the growth of modern Asatru “pagan” and “New Age” movements that in reality have almost nothing to do with the original Germanic religion, elaborate emotional and cosmic effects have been imbued upon each Rune with no historical legitimacy whatsoever. Therefore, it is difficult to describe the spiritual significance of each Rune. The Edda, our major source of pre-Christian pan-Germanic religion, offers verbose descriptions on Runes and their meanings from the mouth of Odin himself (or the pen of Snorri Sturlusson) in Havamal:

“Runes you will find, and readable staves,
Very strong staves,
Very stout staves,
Staves that Bolthor stained,
Made by mighty powers,
Graven by the prophetic God.

[...]

The first charm I know is unknown to rulers
Or any of human kind;
Help it is named,
for help it can give
In hours of sorrow and anguish.

I know a second that the sons of men
Must learn who wish to be leeches.

I know a third: in the thick of battle,
If my need be great enough,
It will blunt the edges of enemy swords,
Their weapons will make no wounds.

I know a fourth:
it will free me quickly
If foes should bind me fast
With strong chains, a chant that makes
Fetters spring from the feet,
Bonds burst from the hands.

I know a fifth: no flying arrow,
Aimed to bring harm to men,
Flies too fast for my fingers to catch it
And hold it in mid-air.

I know a sixth:
It will save me if a man
Cut runes on a sapling' s roots
With intent to harm; it turns the spell;
The hater is harmed, not me.
If I see the hall
Ablaze around my bench mates,
Though hot the flames,
They shall feel nothing,
If I choose to chant the spell.

I know an eighth:
That all are glad of,
Most useful to men:
If hate fester in the heart of a warrior,
It will soon calm and cure him.

I know a ninth:
When need I have
To shelter my ship on the flood,
The wind it calms, the waves it smoothes
And puts the sea to sleep

I know a tenth:
If troublesome ghosts
Ride the rafters aloft,
I can work it so they wander astray,
Unable to find their forms,
Unable to find their homes.

I know an eleventh:
When I lead to battle old comrades in-arms,
I have only to chant it behind my shield,
And unwounded they go to war,
Unwounded they come from war,
Unscathed wherever they are

I know a twelfth:
If a tree bear
A man hanged in a halter,
I can carve and stain strong runes
That will cause the corpse to speak,
Reply to whatever I ask.

I know a thirteenth
If I throw a cup of water over a warrior,
He shall not fall in the fiercest battle,
Nor sink beneath the sword,

I know a fourteenth, that few know:
If I tell a troop of warriors
About the high ones, Elves and Gods,
I can name them one by one.

I know a fifteenth,
That first Thjodrerir
Sang before Delling's doors,
Giving power to Gods, prowess to Elves,
Fore-sight to Hroptatyr Odin,

I know a sixteenth:
If I see a girl
With whom it would please me to play,
I can turn her thoughts, can touch the heart
Of any white armed woman.

I know a seventeenth:
If I sing it,
The young girl will be slow to forsake me.
I know an eighteenth that I never tell
To maiden or wife of man,
A secret I hide from all
Except the love who lies in my arms,
Or else my own sister (“Havamal”, Nordic Edda)

Note that nowhere in the ancient Germanic textual sources do we see specific significance being connected with specific Runes. It is impossible to document which Rune had which meaning with the exception of the Runes representing specific gods themselves. It is inevitable that Runes were engraved upon bones, wood, stones, and gems and used by Odinic shamans and priests for religious purposes. Clearing evil spirits, endowing divine protection from the war gods Thor and Tyr, and predicting an uncertain future are typical. Fertility rites were also important among all early societies, and many of the Runes seem to have had fertility purposes. Much of the religiosity in Scandinavia, as reported to us by Adam von Bremen (an Anglo-Saxon Christian), centered around fertility cults of Freyjr and Freyja. It must be remembered that fertility in ancient societies referred to childbirth and healthy families as opposed to the sexual and lustful association it has acquired today. It can be assumed that fertility Runes were likely placed on personal altars and shrines in private homes prior to intercourse to maximize chances of conception.

One interesting feature of the Runic alphabet is that the German pantheonic gods had their own Runes. Odin had the Othala/Odal Rune for the letter “O”, Thor the Thorn (Þ,þ) for the sound “Th”, Tyr the “T”, and Baldur, Freyjr, and Heimdal may have had the “B”, “F”, and “H”, respectively. It is likely that these religious symbols were designed before the formal alphabet was developed for writing, and the writing system developed from these unique symbols. Predictably, the Runes were used to channel the divine favor and blessings of the particular gods when their specific functions became needed (in times of war, conception, studies, etc.). Although today an Asatru convert may find charts of exact symbolic meanings of each Rune on various New Age websites, it is impossible to know the exact historical significance of each of the Runes or how they evolved.

Odin next to the Odin Rune. This specific Rune had religious significance and evolved into the Runic letter for the sound "O".

Thor had his own Rune that evolved into the sound "Th". In the Icelandic alphabet today, the letter is still used for the same sound.

Tyr's Rune is similar to an arrow. Tyr and Thor are arguably the oldest of the Germanic Pantheon, and worship of Thor seems to have occurred from Germany to Finland if some theories are correct of a common origin of the thunder god Ukko. The Rune then evolved into the letter "T".

Possible origins of the Runic alphabet:

Runic symbols probably existed before the Romans even built a state, written in sand or carved on wood altars and in early Stavkirken (Stave Churches, Odinic temples that can be found in Scandinavia today). These symbols were religious in nature, and did not develop into a system of writing until long after the Roman empire had annexed most of Europe. The earliest evidence of Runic dates from the 2nd century CE/AD. It is difficult to know when these Runes ceased to be solely religious symbols and became literary. For example, an inscription of the Rune “K” on a rock may have referred either to its religious meaning or an abbreviation of the engraver's name (such as Knut), and therefore such evidence may show formal Germanic educational literacy without our knowing it. The overwhelming majority of Runestones and artifacts with the Runic alphabet are in Scandinavia, especially Sweden. So too, there seems to have been a far greater emphasis on war gods like Thor and Tyr among the southern Germans of Germany and pre-Slavic Poland, and a much closer attention to gods of wisdom and fertility among northern Germans in Scandinavia. Nonetheless, the religious myths percolated throughout the Germanic-populated regions. For this reason, the appearance of the Runic alphabet on Runestones throughout the early Germanic world are not the result of Swedish Viking raids and graffiti, but apparently a cultural construct that pervaded uniformly throughout the Germanic realm. Because of the major prevalence of Runic in Sweden, it is safe to assert that the Runic alphabet was created in Sweden or Denmark, as the two regions frequently exchanged rulers. Equally so, it seems that the highest cultural cultivation of the Odinic religion occurred in Sweden, including elaborate temples in Uppsala, a written script with religious significance for each symbol, and a firm emphasis on intellectual aspects such as wisdom and knowledge (versus the simplicity of war). The appearance of Odin as the central god of the pan-Germanic pantheon after the life of Jesus may elude that Odin was an actual historical Swedish king. Therefore, since Odin is attributed with creating the Runes, the Runic alphabet may have even been designed by the actual human Odin in Sweden. This is, obviously, a very broad and dubious assertion. All of these aspects of cultural formation imply that the nexus of early Germanic culture, formalized religion, and the creation of the Runic script occurred in Sweden, and its traditions subsequently spread throughout the Germanic world through trade, alliances, marriage, primitive education, and shaman-type figures.

An early illustration of Adam von Bremen's report of Odinic sacrifice in Uppsala, Sweden

An equally problematic historical question involves the basis/derivation of the Runic alphabet. Because the Germanic world prior to the Christian era was not notably civilized, it is difficult to claim that Swedish Odinists compiled a written script without foreign influence in part. Because the Roman empire, with its highly developed and practical vulgar Latin script, was so dominant throughout Europe, it is often asserted that Runic derives from Latin. This is problematic because the Runic alphabet bears almost no commonality with Latin, and the Romans were never able to conquer the Germans of Germany (east of the Rhein), let alone the northern wastelands of Sweden. There is almost no evidence of a major cultural correspondence between Italians and Germans until the first centuries AD, when Germans gradually ate away at the Roman empire. Trade undoubtedly occurred between Germans and Romans. The first evidence of formalized Runic yet found dates from the 2nd century AD. Shortly thereafter in the same timeframe, Germans became increasingly involved in the Roman army, frequently seizing entire spheres of the empire for themselves (such as the Gallic Empire). Although this may reinforce the theory of a Latin influence on Runic, the fact that the Runic alphabet and Latin have almost no shared features largely rules out the claim that Runic was based upon Latin cultural influences north of Italy. The Romans may be responsible, however, for inspiring the Germans to turn their holy symbols into a way of writing sounds.

Oddly, Runic bears a striking resemblance to ancient Phoenecian (from which Hebrew was derived) and its descendants. Although Phoenecian Semiticpeoples from Lebanon were a major maritime empire, they became defunct with the obliteration of Carthage by Rome in the 3rd century BCE, long before the Germans had developed a written script. Germanic peoples were often semi-nomadic, and may have ventured as far as the Balkans or the Middle East. Semitic-speaking traders may have brought these influences with them. Another theory is that it derived from the ancient Etruscan script that has yet to be translated. The Etruscans were an ancient Greek-influenced Italian people in northern Italy (Etruscan=Tuscan).This, too, is unlikely because the Etruscan culture became altogether obliterated or assimilated into their Italian brother culture in Rome by the 4th century BCE, hundreds of years before Germanic religion and civilization became standardized. Another strange phenomenon is the existence of the so-called “Hungarian Runes.” The Hungarians migrated from central Russia/the Urals from the 9th century onward into the Slavic realms of Central Europe, and may or may not have originally descended from the Slavs. Their system of writing appears to have been a script strikingly similar to Germanic Runes. Upon their king Istvan's conversion to Catholicism in the 11th century, all of their pre-Christian Runic alphabet was abolished in favor of the Latin script. It is possible that the Hungarians borrowed this language from stateless German settlers or villagers east of Germany they met on their eventual fateful way to Hungary. The fact that many of the Runes are literally identical in both Hungarian and Germanic cannot be entirely coincidental.

So-called Hungarian and Etruscan Runes. Etruscan is similar to Runic only in the superficial appearance. Few commonalities can be drawn to Runic. Hungarian Runes, however, are strikingly similar in many ways that make it arguable that Hungarians borrowed an alphabet from the Germans when settling in Central Europe. Because Germanic Runes existed long before Hungarian migration, it cannot be such that Germans borrowed from Hungarians. Note that only a few Etruscan letters are shown here because Etruscan is still untranslatable, and many symbols are used for many different sounds.

There is another theory for the origin of both Runic and Hungarian Runes referred to as “Orkhon Runes” or Central Asian Turkic Runes. 7th-century inscriptions have been found throughout western Mongolia and Siberia with bizarrely familiar symbols that are common to German and Hungarian Runes. The Life Rune, the Swastika, and even the distinctly Germanic Othala Rune of Odin seem to have been used in Central Asia as well. These Runes probably belong to the Turkic populations west of Mongolia, and were likely borrowed from the earlier Sodgian alphabet of their Iranian predecessors. Although it is reasonable to believe that early Turkic and Iranian peoples had contact with Germanic peoples, the fact that the earliest Turkic or Central Asian Runes date from the 9th century – nearly a thousand years after German Runes were being developed – implies that the Germanic Runes are unrelated. It is unusual that the Othala Rune, a very uniquely German symbol, would appear in the desolate plains of the east thousands of miles away, but it is likely no more than coincidence as proven by the independent appearance of the Swastika all over the world's ancient cultures.

Orkhon Runes from Central Asia, which are likely Turkic instead of Mongol design and derived from Iranian Sogdian script, has the most similarities to Germanic Runes next to Hungarian Runes. The Life Rune and the Odin Rune are both present.

Although no consensus has been established regarding the actual origin/basis of the Germanic Runic alphabet and its symbols, it seems that the Germans developed the script on their own when one considers how unlikely it is for these other cultures to have shared their languages with the Germans of the north. The typical assertion that the “backward” Germans borrowed it from the civilized Romans and Greeks is fanciful due to the fact that neither bear any real similarity to Runic whatsoever. The cultural and intellectual drive for Germans to create a standardized writing system may have been inspired by Roman traders and scholars, but it surely was not the basis for this distinctly Germanic heritage.

Runestones throughout the world:

Runestones are large stone landmarks and way-signs engraved with Runic inscriptions. Typically, metal and stone tools are used to carve indentations into the rock face, and paint or dye is smeared into the recesses to leave a lasting imprint. A major problem with evidence is that thousands of Runestones were destroyed for their pagan, non-Christian roots by the Christian authorities of Olaf Tryggvasson and other proponents of the new faith. So too, the very wet, damp climate of Scandinavia makes seaside stones with Runic inscriptions prone to moss and fungus growth that quickly erases the Runes. Although there are thousands of Runestones throughout Northern Europe, it is impossible to know how literate the Germans were with a potential for so much lost evidence. We may therefore never know exactly how developed, civilized, and literate German societies were prior to the adoption of Christendom.

Predictably, the history of prolific Germanic conquest in the Viking age saw the spread of the Runic alphabet and Runic inscriptions throughout the non-Germanic world. Runestones have been found in France, Ireland, Scotland, the Baltic, and may have even spread to Russia and the Middle East, where Vikings traded with native peoples and probably exchanged “useless” Runic-inscribed artisanry for goods. The vast majority of Runestones outside the Germanic world date from the 7th-10th centuries, precisely the Viking Age that ended with the Christianization of Scandinavia (the last Germanic region to be converted). It is possible that Vikings left Runic inscriptions in Canada, where Vikings were the first to discover the New World (excluding Amerindians). Some monuments in Minnesota and the American Northeast claim to have ancient Runic artifacts, but this is largely assumed to be a farce. Since Germanic settlement in North America was so brief and troublesome, it is unlikely that Vikings struggling to survive would take the time to write elaborate stories on Runestones (if they were even literate).

Most Runestones are very simple, and include imagery such as ships, animals, hunting rites, and only a few actual Runes. Most do not actually include any actual message whatsoever in the Runic alphabet. Instead, they include individual Runes intended to honor specific gods (such as Odin or Thor) or to channel the spiritual significance of each Rune (such as protection or reinforcing the king's authority). Some Runestones in Sweden especially have elaborate poetry and stories with intricate artwork, as seen below. Others describe alliance and trade bonds, family triumphs, and prayers. Most Runestones available for viewing today are incredibly faded and difficult to read. Although the original pan-Germanic language has evolved into regional dialects such as Norwegian and today's German, experienced Germanic language-speakers can still read Runic into modern speech.

Odin on his 6-legged horse Schleipnir on a Runestone

(from library.hartsem.edu)

(from http://www.wonderquest.com/english2-big-changes.htm)

(from Odinsvolk.ca)

(from solarnavigator.com)

The Runic alphabet today:

The Runic alphabet today has been revived for a number of interesting and unrelated purposes. The growth of racialist pan-Germanic nationalism during the 19th and 20th centuries renewed interest in native Germanic roots that were not “polluted” by “Jewish Christian” and “un-German” influences. Occult societies in Germany such as the Thule Society studied the historical evidence of the supremacy of the German race (or so they believed), and used symbols that were distinctly German to represent their worldview (Weltanschauung) like the Othala Rune and the Swastika. The Swastika, which today is often believed to have been Hitler's “perversion” of the Hindu symbol for good luck, is actually a geometric symbol found in many unrelated cultures all across the world. The Swastika, thus, may have even been a Rune. Axis Hungary, Romania, Finland, and Germany – all imbued with ethnic nationalist ideology – used Runes on their medals, airplanes, uniforms, and architecture. The Swastika Rune, the Othala, Tyr, Life rune, and Thorn were used in most of the SS legions of the Third Reich. Nonetheless, although Runes were used all throughout World War II and beforehand, almost no evidence exists that Nazis learned and wrote in the Runic alphabet. The German government sponsored the dominance of a new religious ethos that seemed to blend the Germanic Christianity of Lutheranism with the polytheistic heritage of ancient Nordic religion.

The Thule Society was the early occult group that in part gave rise to Nazi symbology in Germany. Runic and pre-Christian Germanic religion were revered.

Finland used the Swastika on its flag when it was part of the Axis in World War II. Although it did not originally have anything to do with the typical German meaning, racist ideology pervaded in all of Europe during the war and especially in Axis nations. Finnish culture -- even before its near-universal adoption of Germanic culture during Swedish Lutheran rule -- shares much in common with early Germanic traditions even in its folklore, such as in the Kalevala.

After World War II, the Allies occupying Germany, Austria, and Italy made most “racist” symbols illegal. Modern-day Asatruars, even in the rare cases that they do not adhere to racialist ideologies, are still forbidden to express the government-protected right to religious freedom because of the Nazi legacy. Runes have since become associated with the racialist, white nationalist, and Neo-Nazi movements in America and Europe. The Othala Rune of Odin, the Life Rune, the Thorn, and the Swastika (obviously) are particularly common. Other Odinic symbols, such as the triple-triangle of Odin (Valknut) are common. For this reason, Runes are typically discouraged for their racist association today, and the Runes themselves have moved away from being religious symbols or a writing system to one of symbolic racism. Although many Asatruars (New Age “Odinists”) claim to be non-racialist and tolerant, the rebirth of pre-Christian Germanic religion is almost universally complimented by racialist idea in Germanic blood, purity, and freedom from the “taint” of foreign races' cultural influences (like the Semites' religion of Jesus Christ). The Church of Odin or Asatruism is an officially-recognized church in the Lutheran-dominated nation of Iceland today, and includes thousands of adherents. Predictably, the Asatruars make a great effort to learn the Runic alphabet in an effort to connect with the Allfather Odin, the cosmic king.

The Odin Rune has been used after the war for racist purposes, as seen here. This flag was not used during World War II at all.

The Runic alphabet is also used for other obscure and irrelevant purposes. Because of the incredibly practical and simple nature of the Runic alphabet that can be used when writing anything from Hungarian to English, many sub-cultures and New Age groups that have nothing to do with Germandom use the Runic alphabet as a secret and esoteric language. It is very easy to memorize. Even Satanist cults have been found to use Runic for their Satanic rituals because no relevant language exists or they are only capable of learning simple systems like Runic (“Pact with the Devil,” Investigation Discovery Channel).

So few even realize how prevalent and influential the Runic and pre-Christian Germanic culture is that is often dismissed as “primitive” and “barbarian” because of our reliance upon Roman sources. Christmas is a pre-Christian Germanic tradition called the Jul/Yule. The sound “Th”, now two letters in English, was once paired for centuries of English history, a legacy of the merged Thorn Rune sound. Even the symbol for the Danish company Bluetooth is a combination of two Runes, and refers to the Odinist unifier of Viking Denmark Harald Bluetooth (although he converted to Christianity before his death). Excluding Saturday (from the Roman god Saturn), all of the days of the week understood throughout the Germanic and English-speaking world derive from pre-Christian Germanic religion: Monday (Mon's Day), Tuesday (Tue/Tyr's), Wednesday (Wedne/Weden/Odin's), Thursday/Donnerstag (Thor's Day or Thunder Day), Friday/Freitag (Freyjr's), and Sunday (the day of the sun god). The many elf languages of the Lord of the Rings trilogy, written by the Germanic quasi-nationalist J.R.R. Tolkein, derive from Runic, as does much of the entire saga itself. The Icelandic alphabet today still includes the Thor rune for the same sound, and thousands of families have the names Thor or Thorsson. The fantastic influence of the Germans throughout history, from the Protestant religion to virtually every major invention in the 19th century, is reflected in the historic spread of this “primitive” Runic script from one of “Viking graffiti” to one of the most influential scripts in history.

________________________________________

ABOUT THE AUTHOR:

James Mayfield is the owner and Chairman of the European Heritage Library. I am working for a doctorate in history, with a specific emphasis on Islamic and European histories. I am well versed in all world cultures, ethnicities, religions, languages, politics, and historical evolution in relation to and against each other.

BIBLIOGRAPHY/SOURCES USED:

-"Pact with the Devil", Investigation Discovery Channel
-"Havamal" (Words of the High One), Poetic Edda (Hollander Translation)
-Omniglot.com for research information and many comparative scripts
-see note under images for credit if they have been taken from known owners