History of the Tatar
Muslims in Eastern Europe, their jihad, and the Soviet genocide
of the Tatars
by James Mayfield (Chairman, European Heritage Library)
This essay offers the complete
history of the Tatars in Eastern Europe, a Turkic Muslim people
who were long a source of inter-religious war with Orthodox
Russia for centuries and have been stereotyped in Europe today
for a perceived barbarism and Islamic jihad. Their history,
however, is far more complicated than these lead one to believe.
This essay is divided into several parts: their ethnic and
cultural origins, their movement into what is now Russia with
the Mongol hordes, their establishment of a massive Islamic
empire of jihad, the Russians' conquest of all the Tatar peoples,
and finally the brutal genocide and forced expulsion of the
Tatars by the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. See our History
of the Volga Germans to read of their genocide by Stalin
as well. Lastly are some brief observations (with photos)
from my research trip to the Crimea (Ukraine), where the Crimean
Tatar Muslims have almost diseappeared as a result of the
genocide.
Ethnic,
genetic, and linguistic background on the Tatar Muslims
The term "Tatar"
or "Tartar" in European societies conjures up the
image of semi-nomadic Muslim equestrians pillaging the Christians
of Eastern Europe and consigning them to slavery for centuries
of occupation. Indeed, this was all very true throughout many
centuries of Russian history, but beyond the stereotype lies
a complicated history of difficult inter-ethnic struggles
that caused brutality on both sides and ended with the complete
genocide and forced expulsion of almost their entire race
to distant Central Asia during the Soviet era.
The genetic and ethnic definitions
of the word "Tatar" are very difficult. Rather than
referring to a specific racial or cultural group, Arabs and
especially Europeans often generalized all the invading nomadic
hordes that were marauding the Middle East and Russia regardless
of their race or culture [1]. Viewing these invading tribes
as a scourge, Europeans often spelled their name "Tartar,"
believed to be in reference to the hellhound from Greek mythology
(Tartarus).
Today, "the Tatars"
more legitimately refers to the disparate Turkic Muslim people
of modern Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Ukraine who
moved westward with the Mongol invasion in the 13th century
before being absorbed into Russia for 500 years to this day.
Although Turkic peoples dominate almost all of Central Asia,
the Tatars are only one of these Turkic minorities, living
mostly in Tatarstan (central Russia). The original legitimate
Tatar ethnic group (in contrast to the generalizing stereotype)
was a large Turkic tribal confederation north of Mongolia
that spoke a Turkic language and worshiped nature via a shamanist
religious ethos. Their name is believed to properly derive
from the early Turkic tribal chieftain called Tatur [1]. The
Tatar ethnic group of Russia and Central Asia has strongly
retained itsindependent Turkic cultural identity that coalesced
during the late Russian imperial era in the 19th century.
The Tatars
enter Russia, convert to Islam, and dominate and enslave the
Russian Christians for over 200 years
Although Turkic peoples were
in Central Asia and along the Volga River (today central Russia)
since the 10th century, the Turkic Tatar tribe moved westward
only with the world-conquering khans of the Mongol hordes.
Batu Khan, one of Chinggis Khan's successors, conscripted
the then-pagan Tatar tribes on his westward march across Central
Asia and Europe. Batu's armies -- consisting of an elite ethnic
Mongol caste and massive Turkic Tatar cavalry -- obliterated
Russia (the Kievan Rus empire), Volga Bulgaria, the Turkic
Kipchak and Cuman tribes of southern Ukraine, and laid waste
to Poland and Hungary before withdrawing to ceremonially honor
the death of the Great Khan Ögedei thousands of miles away
in Qaraqarum in Mongolia. It is this timely event that many
believe saved much of the rest of Europe from total Mongol
hegemony.
The realm that Batu Khan's
Mongols left behind was known as the Kipchak Khanate, dominated
by a elite caste of a handful of ethnic Mongol pagan ruling
over an overwhelmingly Turkic population of Kipchak Turks
and newly-settled Tatars [2]. This khanate was but one of
many empires within the extremely-unified "Mongol Empire."
Islam had already proliferated pervasively among the Kipchaks
in the region, and as a result the new invading Tatar settlers
and their Mongol overlords quickly became absorbed into sedentary
Islamic culture. It was at this point that the Tatars converted
to Sunni Islam as they still remain today. Although
the pagan Mongol elite sponsored Islam and the construction
of mosques to appease their subjects, the Mongol government
of this khanate would not officially embrace Islam until Uzbeg
Khan over a century later.
The massive Kipchak Khanate
(known as the mighty Golden Horde by the
1370's), which stretched from the gates of Lithuania to Kazakhstan,
brutally dominated the Christian Russian and East Slavic principalities
through either exorbitant taxation or harsh direct rule. Although
the Tatars were only one Turkic constituent of this empire,
the Russians referred to all of their occupying oppressors
as Tatars [3]. The Slavic states of Ryazan, Tver, Kiev, and
Galicia were firmly controlled by strict subjugation for 200
years until at least the 15th century. Novogorod was the only
Russian Christian state that was not incinerated by the Turko-Mongol
armies and enjoyed relative autonomy, but was a tributary
vassal. The khans of the Golden Horde, with their Muslim Turkic
and Tatar armies, raided rival and vassal territories constantly
for slaves and loot [4]. They replaced, punished, and dismissed
the sovereigns of their Russian puppets at will, and forced
the nobilities of their dependencies to personally travel
to the distant silk tents of the khan and humbly prostrate.
This was a habitual feeling of occupation and humiliation
that would endure until Ivan the Terrible's brutal revolt
in the 16th century. The fact that most of the raiders were
Turkic Muslims invading Christian territories was equally
salient in the subjugated Slavs' culture.
The flag of the Golden Horde.
The Golden Horde and its
Tatar-Kipchak Muslim population administered a wealthy realm
from their capital of Saray. Foreign dignitaries traveling
along the trade routes to this gold-swaddled capital described
it as a major center for textiles, jewelry, artisanry, silk,
and a massive market for the slave trade. Russians and Ukrainians
(even children) were enslaved and delivered into the huge
slave networks of the Muslim world [7]. The very name Golden
Horde is believed to refer to the radiant golden and silk
tents of the wealthy and resplendent khan [5].
Although the majority of
the population remained Muslim, the small ruling ethnic Mongol
elite followed a very different religious ethos. The Mongol
leaders obdurately obeyed Chinggis Khan's code of law called
the Yasa, including the strict policy of tolerating
diverse religious groups within Mongol dominions. As a result,
the modern image of Islamist-ruled hordes of Tatar Mujahidin
dominating and enslaving the Russian Christians is extremely
oversimplified. However, this modernist image of a multi-cultural
and tolerant Muslim society is equally fanciful. The tolerant
ethnic Mongols were only a small elite caste [2]. The Turkic
Tatars and Kipchaks who dominated the Golden Horde population
were definitively Muslims. Therefore, when the pagan Mongol
government ordered its Muslim subjects to raid or occupy Russian
and Ukrainian Christian lands, it is almost inevitable that
they were incited by Islamic rhetoric and the vocabulary of
jihad by the imams who certainly accompanied
them to battle. Textual and visual sources during the era
of Ivan the Terrible (16th century) portray a religious struggle
between the Russian Christians and their Islamic occupants,
with Ivan and his army being showered with divine protection
by angels. It was indeed a time of religious occupation by
a Turkic Muslim army performing raids and jihad against Russian
Christians. This reality is intimated by the fact that upon
the collapse of the Mongol hegemony along with the Golden
Horde in the early 16th century, the native Turkic Muslim
successor states installed legal and political systems of
a firmly Islamic character [6]. This is the reason for Europeans'
stereotype of a bitter inter-religious war between Muslim
Tatars and European Christians. However, this is not to say
that the Tatars and Kipchaks of the Golden Horde were legitimately
pious Muslims. Turkic tribes continued to drink libations
derived from blood and they constantly drink wine, two intensely
eschewed transgressions in the Qur'an and the Hadith. The
Arab scholar ibn Taymiyya rabidly portrayed the Tatars as
equally as kafir (infidel) as the pagans. The "Tatar"
world-conquerer Timur (Tamerlane), who styled himself as a
Ghazi (holy warrior), would hold massive drunken bouts right
after praying to God for victory in battle against Muslim
opponents. So too, the Mongol government of the Golden Horde
occupiers -- which genuinely practiced increasingly limited
forms of religious tolerance until their demise -- likely
punished Tatar Muslims who waged jihad against their Christian
subjects. Even after officially embracing "Islam"
under Uzbeg Khan (1312-41), the Mongol elite remained reputedly
impious. This, however, in no way disproves the undeniable
antagonism between Christian Russians and their Muslim occupiers.
A map of the many Mongol Empires. Contrary
to popular stereotype, Chinggis Khan did not conquer the world,
nor was the Mongol world ever unified fully. Notice the Khanate
of the Golden Horde in orange dominating the Russian vassals.
(from http://www.freewebs.com/worldtrade/themongols.htm)
The
Russian Slavic Christians unite and expel the Muslim conquerers
The Russian Orthodox Christians
had endured nearly 200 years of the hegemony of the Turko-Mongol
Muslim yoke of the Golden Horde. Fortunately for the Europeans,
the now officially-Muslim empire (by 1435) had rapidly tumbled
into decline, perfidity, contumacy, and dynastic rivalry.
Worst of all was the Black Plague, which decimated the Middle
East and the capital of Saray via trade and slave routes just
as much if not more than it did Europe. The Golden Horde's
unity split into rival sub-hordes. At the same time, the Slavs
were exploiting their occupiers' intimations of decline to
establish their solidarity and independence to throw off the
foreign hegemon. Ivan the Great (III) of Moscow, though still
officially a subject of the Golden Horde, proved that their
occupiers' authority had effectively collapsed when he conquered
Novgorod to create a massive expanding realm of virtually-independent
Russians.
Although Russian nationalists
would seldom admit it, the real deathblow to the Golden Horde
was delivered not by a Christian Slav, but by a fellow Muslim
holy warrior. Timur (Tamerlane), one of history's most magnificent
conquerers who literally obliterated almost every world power
in only a few years without ever losing a battle, considered
the Golden Horde's Khan Tokhtamysh to be in violation of their
previous alliance and transformed the Golden Horde's capital
at Saray into smoldering ruin. The Golden Horde essentially
(although not officially) dissolved into Tatar Muslim successor
Khanates, including the Kazan Khanate, Crimean
Khanate, Sibir, Astrakhan, and more.
His successor, Ivan
the Terrible, seized the opportunity and declared
himself universal autocratic dictator of All Russias, the
sovereign of the Third Rome (after the second, Constantinople,
had fallen to the jihad of the Ottoman Turks in 1453), and
declared all official ties and obligations to the Muslim Tatars
abolished in 1480 [8]. He fashioned himself as a God-ordained
crusader liberating the Russians from Muslim Tatar rule, as
illustrated by official drawings during his reign. In 1571,
a Tatar Muslim army from the Crimea in occupied Ukraine raided
Russia and burnt villages en masse, capturing thousands for
the massive slave markets of the Muslim world [9]. Muslim
raids against the Russians were constant since the 16th century
[10]. The Tatars later sent a royal army to Russia to intimidate
them into submission, but Ivan the Terrible intercepted it
and annihilated it. The Tatars withdrew in humiliation. Consolidating
the new Russian Empire under his reign as the first Tsar (Russian
for "Caesar"), Ivan the Terrible sent his armies
to the Kazan Khanate, the main Tatar successor state to the
shattered Golden Horde. He obliterated it, converted its population
to Christendom by force, and then proceeded to crush the Astrakhan
and Sibir (Siberia) khanates. Russia had how reversed 200
years of Muslim Tatar occupation. The famous onion domes on
his most enduring artistic legacy, St. Basil's Cathedral,
are said to symbolized the severed turban-donning heads of
Russia's slain Tatar Muslim enemies.
The last independent Tatar
population, the very Islamic ([6]) Crimean Khanate in today's
Ukraine, was finally conquered in the 18th century by Catherine
the Great. The Tatars were now firmly entrenched into the
Russian Empire as they would remain for 500 years. The tables
had turned.
Ivan the Terrible, first emperor of
"all Russia", emperor of the Third Rome (Moscow),
and conquerer of the Muslim Tatars at Kazan and Astrakhan
Ivan the Terrible's architectural wonder symbolized the severed
turban-wearing heads of the Muslim Tatar conquerers
Our EHL video of the Soviet propaganda
film "Ivan the Terrible," showing the ruthless Russian
hero uniting the East Slavs under his brutally centralized
autocratic authority and expelling the Muslim occupiers of
the Golden Horde (in reality, its remnants)
Tatars
under Russian rule and the coalescence of a Tatar Muslim identity
under Communist Soviet rule
In the 18th century, Russia's
"Europeanization" process of Peter the Great allowed
the ethnic German Catherine the Great to seize power. In part
to propitiate her constant struggle against the Russian elite
for not being a Slav, Catherine promoted a system of superficial
ethnic and religious autonomy. As a result, the Tatar minority
enjoyed remarkable cultural autonomy as Turkic Muslims until
the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. This was largely done
because of the little threat or influence the illiterate and
remote Tatars could wield. She even funded the construction
of a mosque and a Madrasa school in the main Tatar center,
Kazan (in today's Tatarstan province
in Russia). The Orthodox Bible was printed in Tatar in 1803,
and also the Qur'an [11]. The Tatar Muslim minority survived
in the Crimea (although displaced by settlement by ethnic
Slav nobles), Kazan, and the new province of Azerbaijan. During
the 19th century, Tatar nationalists like İsmail Gaspıralı
promoted a pan-Turkic, pan-Muslim consciousness throughout
the Russian Empire called the Jadid movement. Tatars Jadids
asserted the formation of a unified Tatar Muslim identity
and Tatar language through newspapers like Tercüman
that called for modernization and education.
A map of the Russian empire by 1880, after the conquest of
the Crimea. (click to enlarge)
This process of Tatar identity
coalescence continued during the Russian Revolutionary crisis.
When the Russian Empire collapsed due to the Bolshevik Revolution
in 1917, the Tatars anxiously broke from Russian control.
Tatar and Turkic nationalists like the Basmachi used brutal
violence to expel Slavs from their lands. The Tatars of Tatarstan
(Kazan) declared an independent republic. The Crimean
Tatars, soon to be the victim of genocide, declared
the Crimean People's Republic which established
Islam and Tatar nationalism in southeast Ukraine.
All of these independent
Tatar Muslim nationalist states were again crushed by the
invading Communist Red Army by 1920, including Kazan/Tatarstan,
the Crimean Tatars, Khiva, and Buqara. Ever practical, the
Tatars hoped that they could combine their Islamic faith with
their new Communist dominators. Prominent statesman Hanafi
Muzaffar of the Volga Tatars said, "Muslim people will
unite themselves to Communism: like Communism, Islam rejects
narrow nationalism" [12]. Others like Sultan Galiyev
promoted so-called Islamic Marxism. All of these hopes were
fanciful. Despite initial auspicious All-Russia Muslim Congresses,
Islam was effectively abolished, almost all mosques were eventually
destroyed, and major loyal Islamic Communists like Galiyev
were executed by the Communists in the name of the collective.
The Crimean Tatars lost their
religion and their sovereignty, absorbed into the Ukrainian
SSR. The independence of the Tatars of Kazan (Tatarstan) was
destroyed and the Red Army formed the Tatar Autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR). The forced abolition
of the Tatars' religion and their long-sought autonomy was
a major problem that would cause many Tatars to actively join
the anti-Communist White Army and the invading Nazi killing
squads against Jews and Communists during the war [13]. Nonetheless,
the Tatars of the Tatarstan ASSR were given significant cultural
and ethnic autonomy (as all other minorities) so long as they
did not conflict with Stalin's dictate, in which case they
were instantly purged and massively executed.
Like the Chechens, Kazakhs,
and Ukrainians, the Tatars suffered tremendously as a result
of Soviet rule. Some 30-40,000 Tatars were forced from their
homes to work on collective farms during the collectivization
campaigns of the 1930's by Stalin, and about half
the Tatar population was completely gone by the time
the Germans arrived [14].
The exclusive EHL map charting the USSR and modern Russia's
autonomous republics. Tatarstan is in the center-west. (CLICK
TO ENLARGE)
The flag of the shattered
Crimean People's Republic after it was destroyed by the Red
Army (from flagspot.net)
The
Soviet genocide of the Tatars and their forced expulsion to
Central Asia
Any autonomy that the Tatar
minority of the Crimea and Tatarstan (Kazan) enjoyed was forever
lost as a result of World War II. When the Germans, Romanians,
and Hungarians invaded the Soviet Union after 1941, they found
huge segments of Soviet minorities like the Muslim Tatars,
Chechens, Dagestanis, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, and
Ukrainians actively joining the Nazis against the Soviets.
Some were, like the Bosnian Muslims, inspired by the Grand
Mufti of Jerusalem Amin
al-Husayni in Islamic jihad against Jews and atheistic
Communists. Most Tatars, however, have not been proven to
have supported the invading Axis armies. Most Tatars lived
in the Tatarstan SSR, which was never even taken by the Germans
in the war.
But the ruthless paranoia
of Joseph Stalin implicated the Tatars as being a potentially
perfidious threat to the Soviet Union. The Crimean Tatar sect
were the worst victim of the Tatars. What ensued were several
of the worst -- and yet bizarrely unheard of -- genocides
of the 20th century. Along with 800,000
ethnic German civilians and nearly half of the Chechens,
Ingush, Kalmyk, and Koreans, almost the entire Tatar Turkic
race was expelled from Russia to the distant wastelands of
Central Asia and Siberia for forced labor. More than 11,000,000
ethnic German civilians were expelled from Poland and
Czechoslovakia. The entire Crimean Tatar population was expelled
and resettled by Ukrainian Slavs encouraged by government
subsidy. Tatars were shipped en masse on train rides lasting
weeks with no heat, food, or waste disposal to forced labor
camps in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, with about 46% of Tatars
and ethnic Germans dying on the way [14]. About a total of
190,000 Crimean Tatars alone were sent to Central Asia [15].
Many Tatars remained in Tatarstan after a thorough purging,
but the remaining Tatar culture that was disparately settled
throughout the Russian SFSR was forever dismantled.
After Stalin's death in 1953,
the "de-Stalization" reforms of Nikita Khrushchev
assuaged the race-based forced labor and segregation against
resettled minorities like the Chechens, Volga Germans, and
Koreans. The Tatars, however, were disallowed to return to
the Crimea until 1988. As there is no certain documentation,
the pervading theory for this delay is because of the significant
role that the Crimea played in the Ukrainian SSR's economics,
which were in part supported by the ethnic Ukrainian Khrushchev's
authority. After 1968, Some Soviet human rights groups increasingly
campaigned for the return of Tatars to their homelands. A
massive street riot in the Uzbek SSR by Tatars was met with
arrests and gunshots. It was only in 1988 with the liberalization
of Gorbachev's Perestroika that the Crimean Tatars, now almost
entirely extinct, were allowed to return to Ukraine.
Today, Tatarstan (still a
legal province of Russia) has a slight ethnic Tatar Muslim
majority. Most Crimean Tatars, ironically, live in Uzbekistan
(1.5% of the population) and Kazakhstan (1.7%) [16]. About
50,000 Tatars have returned to the Crimea since the 1990's
[15]. Most are reluctant to leave due to the tremendous cost
and uncertainty, and the inter-ethnic hostility they would
receive in ultra-homogeneous Slavic Ukraine versus Turkic
Central Asia (where their languages are inter-communicable).
The Crimea is the southernmost
tip of Ukraine on the Black Sea (from mytravelguide.com) (click
to enlarge)
The
Crimea today, land of the disappeared Tatars (with my photos)
Today, Ukraine is now one
of the most homogeneous countries of Europe, with an almost
universally Slavic genetic stock. When I went to the Crimea
for my research trip, it was so culturally and ethnically
homogeneous that one would easily think that this region was
not thoroughly dominated by Turkic Muslim Tatars for some
500 years. Mosques long destroyed by Communist rule have been
replaced by resplendent Orthodox cathedrals (shown below).
There are hardly any non-Slavs, Turks, or Muslims. Ukraine
is officially only 0.5% ethnic Crimean Tatar [16]. The Crimea
itself is officially 11.4% ethnic Tatar [17]. They have their
own propitiatory representative body in the Ukrainian political
structure. The Turkic Muslim population is quickly growing
due to immigration from Turkey and repatriation from Kazakhstan
and Uzbekistan in addition to the huge
birthrate of Muslims over the native Ukrainians. They
are sedulously encouraging the construction of new mosques,
new measures for academic commemoration for the genocide of
the Tatars, and the encouragement for government support to
foster or subsdize Tatar immigration. Hookah (waterpipe) bars
and Turkish food restaurants can be seen popping up with Turkic
owners. Despite the Tatars' auspicious hopes for an increased
repopulation of the area and the achievement of autonomy or
independence for their tiny minority, there is growing inter-racial
hatred between the overwhelming Slavic majority and the incoming
Tatar Muslim minority. From a few interviews and observations
I gained of the interaction between Ukrainians and the few
Turkic people I saw, there was a strong sense of antipathy
for this incoming population. They greatly derided the "flooding"
of their city by what they portrayed as illiterate, unemployed,
and incredibly foreign Muslims who (in their words) expect
tremendous economic, social, and political leniency and taxpayer
support for the crimes of Stalin with which the Ukrainians
were not involved. The Ukrainians insist (perhaps correctly)
that the suffering of the Tatars is completely insignificant
compared with the Holodomor famines caused by Stalin
against the Ukrainians, causing some of the highest death
tolls of the 20th century that most Russians refuse to acknowledge
even happened. Two Ukrainians I interviewed intimated the
same notion, "why should we support the Muslims when
the Russians don't even compensate us for Holodomor?"
Street violence between gangs and even citizens has escalated
recently from the context of a growing inter-ethnic antipathy
in Europe for Muslim immigrants (see our Muslims
in Europe map). Russia and Ukraine have exploding far-right
and racialist populations that have even entered the governments.
I saw grafitti that included Swastikas everywhere and said
"F*CK JEWS" and "F*CK MUSLIMS." Some Tatar
groups were described by the local government as being sponsored
by foreign Wahhabi groups seeking to proliferate Islam in
this newly-settled Turkic Muslim population [18]. Arab extremist
groups like the Hizb-i-Tehrir, emphasizing a supposedly concentrated
Christian persecution of Tatar Muslims by the very un-Christian
Communists, have caused clashes with the semi-autonomous Tatar
government. Even assassinations of journalists and death threats
against Russian nationalists and reconciliatory Tatar officials
have occurred. The Tatar government (the Mejliler)
has responded with a very acquiescent policy in hopes of gaining
a respected sociopolitical standing. However, as immigrants
from a very foreign and disliked Muslim culture barrage into
this incredibly homogeneous and nationalistic country with
an exploding population of far-right racialists, the Crimean
Tatars' hopes for a reversal of their history of persecution
and an integration into Ukraine seem to be illusory. The Crimea
is now Slavic.
My photo of a majestic Orthodox Ukrainian cathedral. By no
means are Ukraine and the Crimea Islamic as they were before
the Slavic conquest. (click to enlarge)
My photo of a close-up of the above Orthodox conservative
cathedral. (click to enlarge)
My photo of a Tatar huqqah bar for tobacco, brought by the
Tatar and Turkish immigrants.
My photo of a magnificent Christian Slavic palace for Russia's
heroic general against Napoleon and the Caucasian Jihad near
Chechnya. Here the Iranian Shi'ia style is shown in the backside
of the palace.
My photo of one of Ukraine's last standing statues of Lenin.
The text at the base means "Lenin" in the Ukrainian
Cyrillic script.
________________________________________
ABOUT
THE AUTHOR:
James Mayfield is a historian
and the Chairman of the European Heritage Library. I have
a Cum Laude BA in History with a Minor in Germanic Studies
(language and history), am presently working for my Masters
in History, and plan to immediately progress to my PhD Doctorate.
I have a special academic interest in Europe's diverse ethnic
identities, languages, and cultures, and the political struggles
of native European and immigrant minority identities. See
my staff entry for more information.
BIBLIOGRAPHY/SOURCES
USED:
-Images that lack an EHL
watermark are not our property. If no link is provided, we
were unable to locate the original owner. If you find that
your property has been used, feel free to notify us.
-Personal photos, interviews,
and observations in the Crimea in Ukraine
[1] Marozzi, Justin. Tamerlane:
Sword of Islam, Conquerer of the World. Cambridge, MA:
Da Capo Press, 2004. Page 8.
[2] Grousset, Rene. Empire
of the Steppes. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
Press, 1970. Page 473.
[3] Kort, Michael. A
Brief History of Russia. New York: Checkmark Books, 2008.
Page 13.
[4] Grousset 1970, 395.
[5] Marozzi 2004, 71.
[6] Grousset 1970, 471.
[7] Marozzi 2004, 75.
[8] Kort 2008, 24.
[9] Kort 2008, 40.
[10] Ostler, Nicholas. Empires
of the Word: A Language History of the World. New York:
Harper Collins, 2005. Page 433.
[11] Ostler 2005, 435.
[12] Hosking, Geoffrey. The
First Socialist Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1992. Page 108.
[13] Hosking 1992, 110.
[14] Burleigh, Michael. The
Third Reich: A New History. Hill and Wang, 2001. Page
748.
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